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7017AIRPORT AND AIRWAYS

AMT111


PRELIM TOPICS


  1. AVIATION


Is a term that refers to the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft, especially heavier-than-air aircraft.


Is a branch of science, business, or technology that deals with any part of the operation of machines that fly through the air.


  1. THE AVIATION COMMUNITY


The aviation community has three sectors. The scheduled public air transportation to about 500 locations through the country and to every part of the globe is known as Commercial Aviation. The aircraft flown by the armed forces constitute Military Aviation. Any aeronautical activity that does not fail into one of these two sectors is called General Aviation.



  1. Commercial aviation


Is the part of civil aviation (both general aviation and scheduled airline service) that involves operating aircraft for hire to transport passengers of cargo.


There are five major manufacturers of civil transport aircraft (in alphabetical order):



Boeing, Airbus, llyushin and Tupolev concentrate on wide-body and narrow-body jet airliners, while Bombardier, Embraer and Sukhoi concentrate on regional airliners.


  1. General Aviation


General aviation includes all non-scheduled civil flying, both private and commercial. General aviation may include business flights, air charter, private aviation, flight training, parachuting, aerial photography, foot-launched powered hang gliders, air ambulance, crop dusting, charter flights, traffic reporting, police air patrols and forest fire fighting.


Many small aircraft manufacturers, including Cessna, Piper, Diamond, Mooney, Cirrus Design, Raytheon and others serve the general aviation market, with a focus on private aviation and fight training.



  1. Military Aviation


Is the use of aircraft and other flying machines for the purposes of conducting or enabling warfare, including national airlift (cargo) capacity to provide logistical supply to forces stationed in a theater or along a front. The wide variety of military aircraft includes bombers, fighters, fighter bombers, transports, trainers, and reconnaissance aircraft. These varied types of aircraft allow for the completion of a wide variety of objectives.


Types of military aircraft


F-15 Sukhoi Su-25 B-29 Superfortress


C-130 Hercules de Havilland Mosquito AH-64


  1. CATEGORIES OF AN AIRCRAFT

  1. Transport – refers to airlines and other large aircraft that exceed certain limit.

  2. Commuters – aircraft design to carry passengers.

  3. Restricted – aircraft used for special purpose.

  4. Limited – refers to military aircraft that are now allowed to be used only for limited purpose in civil aviation.

  5. Experimental – aircraft used to test new design and new concept.

  6. Provisional – an interim measure which have not net all requirements for initial certification.

  7. Aerobatic – aircraft which has the fewest operations because this design requirements demand more strength than others.

  8. Normal and Utility – common to most airplanes used in fight training and certified for both of these categories.


  1. AIRPLANE CLASSIFICATION


HEAVIER THAN AIR


Including autogyros, helicopters and variants, and conventional fixed-wing aircraft: aeroplanes in Commonwealth English (excluding Canada), airplanes in North American English. Fixed-wing aircraft generally use an internal-combustion engine in the form of a piston engine (with a propeller) or a turbine engine (jet or turboprop), to provide thrust that moves the craft forward through the air. The movement of air over the airfoil produces lift that causes the aircraft to fly. Exceptions are gliders which have no engines and gain their thrust, initially, from winches or tugs and then from gravity and thermal currents. For a glider to maintain its forward speed it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Helicopters and autogyros use a spinning rotor (a rotary wing) to provide both lift and thrust. The abbreviation VTOL is applied to aircraft other than helicopters that can take off or land vertically STOL stands for Short Take Off and landing.


LIGHTER THAN AIR


Including hot air balloons and airships. Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same manner as ships float on the water. In particular, these aircraft use a relatively low density gas such as helium, hydrogen or heated air, to displace the air around the craft. The distinction between a balloon and an airship is that an airship has some means of controlling both its forward motion and steering itself, while balloons are carried along with the wind.


There are several ways to classify aircraft. Below, we describe classifications by design, propulsion and usage.



HEAVIER THAN AIR AIRCRAFT (B747) AND LIGHTER THAN AIR AIRCRAFT (AIRSHIP)


BY DESIGN


A first division by design among aircraft is between lighter-than-air, aerostat, and heavier-than-aircraft, aerodyne.


Examples of lighter-than-air aircraft include non-steerable balloons, such as hot air balloons and gas balloons, and airships (sometimes called dirigible balloons) such as blimps (that have non-rigid construction) and rigid airships that have a rigid frame. The most successful type of rigid airship was the Zeppelin, although there were some accidents such as the Hindenburg Zeppelin which was destroyed in a fire at Lakehurst, NJ, in 1937


In heavier-than-air aircraft. There are two ways to produce lift aerodynamic lift and engine lift. In the case of aerodynamic lift, the aircraft is kept in the air by wings or rotors. With engine lift, the aircraft defeats gravity by use of vertical thrust greater than its weight.

Examples of engine lift aircraft are rockets, and VTOL planes such as the Hawker-Siddeley Harrier (on left).


Among aerodynamically lifted aircraft, most fall in the category of fixed-wing aircraft, where horizontal airfoils produce lift.


In a “conventional” configuration, the lift surfaces are placed in front of a control surface of tailplane. The other configuration is the canard where small horizontal control surfaces are placed forward of the wings, near the nose of the aircraft. Canards are becoming more common as supersonic aerodynamics grows more mature and because the forward surface contributes lift during straight-and-level flight.


BY PROPULSION


Some types of aircraft, such as the balloon or glider, do not have any propulsion. Balloons drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude). For gliders, takeoff takes place from a high location, or the aircraft is pulled into the air by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or towed aloft by a powered “tug” aircraft. Airships combine a balloon’s buoyancy with some kind of propulsion, usually propeller driven.



BY USAGE


The major distinction in aircraft usage is between military aviation, which includes all uses of airplane for military purposes (such as combat, patrolling, search and rescue, reconnaissance, transport, and training), and civil aviation, which includes all uses of airplanes for non-military purposes.


  1. TYPES OF AIRCRAFT

A helicopter is one of the most convenient and timesaving ways to transfer between the city and airport, alternatively an easy way to reach remote destinations.

A economical aircraft range suitable for short distance flights.

Aircraft seating capacity ranging from 3 to 8 passengers.

A wide range of aircraft suitable for short and medium distance flights with a duration of up to 2-4 hours. Aircraft seating capacity ranging from 4 to 70 passengers.

An Executive Jet is the most time efficient way of travel, suitable for medium of long distance flights. Aircraft seating capacity ranging from 4 to 16 passengers.

Large jet aircraft suitable for all kinds of flights. Aircraft seating capacity ranging form 50 to 400 passengers.

Any type of cargo. Ranging from short notice flights carrying vital spare parts up to large cargo aircraft that can transport any voluminous goods.


  1. IMPORTANT AERONAUTICAL TERMS


Aeroplane – A powered aircraft that derives its lift from the movement of air over fixed lifting surfaces.


Aerostat – A lighter-than-air craft, such as a balloon or airship. Its lift is caused by buoyancy relative to surrounding air.


Aircraft – A vehicle that can travel through the air.


Airplane – A powered aircraft that derives its lift from the movement of air over fixed lifting surfaces.


Airship – A lighter-than-air craft that can be steered and propelled through the air. (Also dirigible)


Autogyro – A rotor-craft with unpowered blades- it requires a separate engine to provide forward motion before lift is developed.


Balloon – An unpowered lighter-than-air craft.


Biplane – An aeroplane with two similar-sized wings (or pais of wings), exactly or approximately in vertical alignment.


Blimp – None-rigid airship.


Dirigible – A lighter-than-air craft that can be steered and propelled through the air. From the French word dirigeable meaning steerable.


Helicopter – A rotor craft with one or more sets of powered blades.


Monoplane – An aeroplane with one wing (or pairs of wings).


Rotocraft – An aircraft that derives its lift from rotating lifting surfaces (usually called blades)


Aircraft – Anything that is designed to be flown in the air. The general term aircraft includes airplanes, helicopters, gliders, airships, balloons and kites. Airplane and aircraft are not synonymous; airplanes are aircraft, but not all aircraft are airplanes.


Airfoil – any surface capable of producing lift. The wings are the primary airfoils of an airplane but the tail, propeller and fuselage produce lift as well. Thus, wings are airfoils but not all airfoils are wings; wing and airfoil are not synonymous.


Airplane – A mechanically or engine-driven, fixed wing, heavier-than-air craft that is supported in the air by lift. The term airplane (or aeroplane) frequently is shortened now to simply “plane.”


Airship – a lighter-than-air craft with a propelling system and a means of controlling the direction of flight (steering). Blimps are an example of airships.

Glider – A heavier-than-air aircraft that is supported in the air by lift and whose free flight does not depend on an engine.


Heavier-than-air – Aircraft, such as airplanes, gliders and helicopters, whose lift is produced by a reaction between airfoils and motion through the air. In the early days of aviation, powered heavier-than-air flight was also known as “mechanical” flight, since lift was generated “mechanically” by the movement of an airfoil through the air.


Lighter-than-air – Aircraft, such as balloons and airships, i.e., blimps, dirigibles, whose buoyancy for lifting capability depends on being inflated with a gas (such as hot air, hydrogen or helium) that is lighter than the air in which it is supported.


  1. CAAP CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY OF THE PHILIPPINES



The Philippines’ Civil Aviation Authority formerly Air Transportation Office (Filipino: Tanggapan ng Tranportasyong Himpapawid), abbreviated as CAAP, is an agency of the Philippine government under the Department of Transportation and Communications responsible for implementing policies on civil aviation to assure safe, economic and efficient air travel. The agency also investigates aviation accidents. The agency’s main office is in Pasay City.


  1. CIVIL AERONOUTICS BOARD (PHILIPPINES)


The Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) is a government agency of the Philippines tasked to regulate, promote and develop the economic aspect of air transportation in the Philippines and to ensure that existing CAB policies are adapted to the present and future air commerce of the Philippines.


The Board has supervisory and jurisdictional control over air carriers, general sales agents, cargo sales agents, and airfreight forwarders, as well as their property, property rights, equipment, facilities and franchises. It is attached to the Department of Transportation and Communications.


  1. FIXED BASE OPERATOR


An FBO or fixed base operator (also known as fixed of operation), is the primary provider of services to general aviation aircraft and operators located at or adjacent to an airport. An FBO may be a private enterprise, municipality or city operated, or state-agency operated. Primarily a term used within the United States and other North American countries, the term is becoming more common in the international aviation industry.


FBO businesses traditionally offer aircraft refueling (also known as line service) of both reciprocating engine aircraft fuel (100LL or Avgas) and turbine aircraft fuel (Jet-A or Jet A-1), aircraft parking and tie-down, and access to basic comforts such as restrooms and telephones. Other services may include flight training and aircraft rental, aircraft maintenance service, hangar storage, air charter and air-taxi, aircraft sales, and ground handling of passengers, baggage, and/or cargo.


  1. FLIGHT SERVICE STATION


A Flight Service Station (FSS) is an air traffic facility that provides information and services to aircraft pilots before, during, and after flights, but unlike air traffic control (ATC), is not responsible for giving instruction or clearances or providing separation. The people who communicate with pilots from an FSS are referred to as specialists rather than controllers, although in the US, FSS specialists’ official job title is air traffic control specialist – station.


The precise services offered by stations vary by country, but typical FSS services may include providing preflight briefings including weather and notices to airmen (NOTAMs); filing, opening, and closing flight plans; monitoring navigational aids (NAVAIDs); collecting and disseminating pilot reports (PIREPs); offering traffic advisories to aircraft on the ground or in flight; relaying instructions or clearances from air traffic control; and providing assistance in an emergency. In many countries, flight service stations also operate at mandatory frequency airports to help co-ordinate traffic in the absence of air traffic controllers, and may take over a control tower frequency at a controlled airport when the tower is closed.


  1. INTRODUCTION TO AIRPORT


AIRPORT


Is a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and blimps takeoff and land. An Airport consists of at least one surface such as runway for a plane to take off and land, a helipad, or water for takeoffs and landings, and often includes buildings such as control towers, hangars and terminal buildings.

SEOUL INCHEON INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

  1. AIRSIDE AREAS


RUNWAY

Is a strip of land at an airport on which aircraft can take off and land and forms part of maneuvering area. Runways may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, or salt)


TAXIWAY


A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps, hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have a hard surface such as asphalt or concrete, although smaller airports sometimes use gravel or grass. Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways in order to allow aircraft to lave the runway at higher speeds. This allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another to land in a shorter space of time.


AIRPORT RAMP


The airport ramp or apron is a part of an airport. It is usually the area where the aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled or boarded. Although the use of apron is covered by regulations, such as lighting on vehicles, it is typically more accessible to users than the runway or taxiway. However, the apron is not usually open to the general public and a license may be required to gain access.


AIRPORT RUNWAY, TAXIWAY AND APRON AREA


  1. LANDSIDE AREAS


PARKING LOT

A parking lot (known as a car park in countries such as Malaysia, Australia, United Kingdom and Ireland), also known as car lot, is a cleared area that is more or less level and is intended for parking vehicles. Usually, the term refers to a dedicated area that has been provided with a durable or semi-durable surface. In most countries where cars are the dominant mode of transportation, parking lots are a feature of every city and suburban area. Shopping malls, sports stadiums, mega churches and similar venues often feature parking lot of immense area.


PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION


Public transport (also public transportation, public transit, or mass transit) comprises passenger transportation services which are available for use by the general public, as opposed to modes for private use such as automobiles or vehicles for hire. Public transport services are usually funded by fares charged to each passenger, with varying levels of subsidy from local or national tax revenue, full-subsidized, zero-fare services operate in some towns and cities.


ACCESS ROAD

Access roads provide critical links between public-use airport facilities and the public roadway network serving the surrounding area. Public access roads on airport property provide access to public areas on an airport. Funding sources for access roads vary based on the location of the roads. The design and construction of access roads built within airport property boundaries are eligible for federal capital improvement funding and state funding through the Airport Capital Program.


PERIMETER ROADS


A perimeter road provides restricted access within an airport’s field. These perimeter roads are used by airport, and FAA staff to conduct business activities, such as security check and maintenance work, on an airport. Airport Capital Program funds may be used to design and construct perimeter roads.


SHOPS AND FOOD SERVICES


The prices charged for food are generally higher prices found outside the airport. However, some airports now regulate food costs to keep them comparable to “street prices”. This term is misleading as often match the manufacturer’s suggested retail price (MSRP) but are almost never discounted.


Some restaurants offer regional cuisine specialties for those in transit so that they may sample local food or culture without leaving the airport.


PREMIUM AND VIP SERVICES


Airports may also contain premium and VIP services. The premium and VIP services may include express check-in, dedicated check-in counters, separate departures and/or arrival lounge, priority boarding, separate air bridges, and priority baggage handling.

These services are usually reserved for First and Business class passengers, premium frequent flyers, and members of the airline clubs. Premium services may sometimes be open to passengers who are members of different airliners frequent flyer program. This can may sometimes be part of a reciprocal deal, as when multiple airlines are part of the same alliance, or as ploy to attract premium customers away from rival airlines.


SUPPORT SERVICES


Aircraft maintenance, pilot services, aircraft rental, and hangar rental are most often performed by fixed base operator (FBO). At major airports, particularly those used as hubs, airlines may operate their own support facilities.

AIRPORT ACCESS


Many large airports are located near railway trunk routes for seamless connection of multimodal transport. For instance, Frankfurt Airport, Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, London Heathrow Airport and London Stansted Airport. It is also common to connect an airport and a city with rapid transit, light rail lines or other non-road public transport systems. For instance, the Airtrain JFK at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York and the Silver Line T at Boston’s Logan International Airport by Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA). Such connection lowers risk of missed flights due to traffic congestion. Large airports usually have access also through expressways from which vehicles enter either the departure loop or the arrival loop.


AIRPORT TERMINAL


  1. AIRPORT TERMINAL


An airport terminal is a building at an airport where the passengers transfer between ground transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from aircraft. Within the terminal, passengers purchase tickets, transfer their luggage, and go through security. The buildings that provide access to the airplanes (via gates) are typically called concourses. Smaller airports have one terminal while the larger airports have several terminals and/or concourses. At smaller airports, the single terminal building typically serves all the functions of a terminal and a concourse.


  1. AIRPORT TERMINAL DESIGN


Due to the rapid rise in popularity of passenger flight, many early terminals were built in the 1930s-1940s and reflect the popular art deco style architecture of the time. One such surviving example from 1940 is the Houston Municipal Airport Terminal. Early airport terminals opened directly onto the tarmac: passengers would walk or take a bus to their aircraft. This design is still common among smaller airports, and even many larger airports have “bus gates” to accommodate aircraft beyond the main terminal.

Typically design of a terminal, showing the Departures (upper half page) and Arrival levels.


  1. Departures Lounge

  2. Gates and jet bridge

  3. Security Clearance Gates

  4. Baggage Check-in

  5. Baggage Carousels





Pier


A pier design uses a long, narrow building with the aircraft parked on both sides. One end connects to a ticketing and baggage claim area. Piers offers high aircraft capacity and simplicity of design, but often result in a long distance from the check-in counter to the gate (up to half mile in the case of Kansai International Airport). Most large international airports have piers, including Chicago O’Hare International Airport, Frankfurt International Airport and London International Airport.

Satellite Terminal


A satellite terminal is a building detached from other airport buildings, so that aircraft can park around is entire circumferences. The first airport to use satellite terminal was London Gatwick Airport. It used an underground pedestrian tunnel to connect the satellite to the main terminal. This was also the first setup at Los Angeles International Airport, but it has since been converted into pier layout. The first airport to use an automatic people mover to connect the main terminal with a satellite was Tampa International Airport, which is the standard today. Paris’s Charles de Gaulle International Airport (Terminal 1) and London Gatwick Airport (South Terminal) both have circular satellite terminals, building via underground tunnels and walkways. Zurich Airport’s Gate E are connected by a subway. Sea-Tac International Airport has two rectangular satellite terminals connected by an automatic people mover.




Semicircular Terminal


Some airports use a semicircular terminal, with aircraft parked on one side and cars and cars on the other. This design results in long walks for connecting passengers, but greatly reduces travel times between check-in and the aircraft. Airports designed around this model include Charles de Gaulle International Airport (Terminal 2), Mumbai International Airport (Terminal 2), Dallas /Fort Worth International Airport, Seoul’s Incheon International Airport, Kansas City Airport and Sapporo’s New Chitose Airport.




  1. KINDS OF AIRPORT


INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT


An international airport is an airport typically equipped with customs and immigration facilities to handle international flights to and from other countries. Such airports are usually larger, and often feature longer runways and facilities to accommodate the large aircraft commonly used for international or intercontinental travel. International airports often host domestic flights (flights which occur within the country) in addition to international flights. In smaller countries most airports are international airports, so the concept of an “international airport” has little meaning. In certain countries however, there is a sub-category of limited international airports which handle international flights, but are limited to short-haul destinations (often due to geographical factors) or are mixed civilian/military airports.


Many airports with regular scheduled international services have the word “international” in their official names, but others, including such major airports as London Heathrow Airport, Detroit Metropolitan Wayne county Airport, and George Bush Intercontinental Airport do not. Conversely, some airports which call themselves international airports, especially in smaller United States cities, in fact have no scheduled international flighyts. At many of these airports customs and immigration services are only available with several hours advance notice. One example of such an airport is Gerald R. Ford International Airport in Grand Rapids, Michigan. A few





A domestic airport is an airport which handles only domestic flights or flights within the same country. Domestic airports don't have customs and immigration facilities and are therefore incapable of handling flights to or from a foreign airport.

These airports normally have short runways which are sufficient to handle short/medium haul aircraft and regional air traffic.[citation needed] They have in many countries not had any security check / metal detector, but such checks have been added in recent years.

Most municipal airports in Canada and the United States are of this classification. At international airports in Canada, there are domestic terminals that handle flights within Canada (flying from one Canadian city to another).

Several small countries do not have any public domestic airports, or even public domestic flights, e.g. Belgium.


Airport guidance signs provide direction and information to taxiing aircraft and airport vehicles. Smaller airports may have few or no signs, relying instead on airport diagrams and charts.

There are two classes of signage at airports, with several types of each:

Operational guidance signs

Location sign for a taxiway.

Direction sign to taxiway Bravo.

Mandatory instruction signs

No entry sign.

Mandatory instruction signs are white on red. They show entrances to runways or critical areas. Vehicles and aircraft are required to stop at these signs until the control tower gives clearance to proceed.

[edit] Lighting

Flood lights in front of the control tower at Sialkot International Airport, Pakistan

Many airports have lighting that help guide planes using the runways and taxiways at night or in rain or fog.

On runways, green lights indicate the beginning of the runway for landing, while red lights indicate the end of the runway. Runway edge lighting consists of white lights spaced out on both sides of the runway, indicating the edge. Some airports have more complicated lighting on the runways including lights that run down the centerline of the runway and lights that help indicate the approach (an Approach Lighting System, or ALS). Low-traffic airports may use Pilot Controlled Lighting to save electricity and staffing costs.

Along taxiways, blue lights indicate the taxiway's edge, and some airports have embedded green lights that indicate the centerline.

Weather observations

See also: Surface weather observation, Weather station, Automated airport weather station, and Automatic weather station

Weather observations at the airport are crucial to safe takeoffs and landings. In the US and Canada, the vast majority of airports, large and small, will either have some form of automated airport weather station, whether an AWOS, ASOS, or AWSS, a human observer or a combination of the two. These weather observations, predominantly in the METAR format, are available over the radio, through Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS), via the ATC or the Flight Service Station.

Planes take-off and land into the wind in order to achieve maximum performance. Because pilots need instantaneous information during landing, a windsock is also kept in view of the runway.

FAA

Our Mission

Our continuing mission is to provide the safest, most efficient aerospace system in the world.

Our Vision

We strive to reach the next level of safety, efficiency, environmental responsibility and global leadership. We are accountable to the American public and our stakeholders.

Our Values

A Brief History of the FAA

The modern age of powered flight began in 1903, when Orville Wright made the first sustained, powered flight on December 17 in a plane he and his brother Wilbur built. This twelve-second flight led to the development of the first practical airplane in 1905, and launched worldwide efforts to build better flying machines. As a result, the early twentieth century witnessed myriad aviation developments as new planes and technologies entered service. During World War I, the airplane also proved its effectiveness as a military tool and, with the advent of early airmail service, showed great promise for commercial applications.

Despite limited post-World War I technical developments, early aviation remained a dangerous business. Flying conditions proved difficult since the only navigation devices available to most pilots were magnetic compasses. Pilots flew 200 to 500 feet above ground so they could navigate by roads and railways. Low visibility and night landings were made using bonfires on the field as lighting. Fatal accidents were routine.

The Air Mail Act of 1925 facilitated the creation of a profitable commercial airline industry, and airline companies such as Pan American Airways, Western Air Express, and Ford Air Transport Service began scheduled commercial passenger service. By the mid-1930s, the four major domestic airlines that dominated commercial travel for most of the twentieth century began operations: United, American, Eastern, and Transcontinental and Western Air (TWA).

As air travel increased, some airport operators, hoping to improve safety, began providing an early form of air traffic control (ATC) based on visual signals. Early controllers stood on the field and waved flags to communicate with pilots. Archie League, the system's first flagmen, began work in the late 1920s at the airfield in St. Louis, Missouri.

Origins of the FAA

Aviation industry leaders believed the airplane could not reach its full commercial potential without federal action to improve and maintain safety standards. At their urging, the Air Commerce Act was passed in 1926. This landmark legislation charged the Secretary of Commerce with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air traffic rules, licensing pilots, certifying aircraft, establishing airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation. A new Aeronautics Branch in the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight, and William P. MacCracken, Jr., became its first director.

In 1934 the Department of Commerce renamed the Aeronautics Branch the Bureau of Air Commerce to reflect the growing importance of aviation to the nation. In one of its first acts, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first air traffic control centers (Newark, New Jersey, Cleveland, Ohio, and Chicago, Illinois) to provide en route air traffic control. In 1936 the Bureau took over these centers. Early en route controllers tracked the position of planes using maps and blackboards and little boat-shaped weights that came to be called "shrimp boats." They had no direct radio link with aircraft, but used telephones to stay in touch with airline dispatchers, airway radio operators, and airport traffic controllers. Although en route ATC became a federal responsibility, local government authorities continued to operate airport towers. While the Department of Commerce worked to improve aviation safety, a number of high profile accidents called the department's oversight responsibilities into question. A 1931 crash that killed all on board, including popular University of Notre Dame football coach Knute Rockne, elicited public calls for greater federal oversight of aviation safety. Four years later, a DC-2 crash killed U.S. Senator Bronson Cutting of New Mexico.

To ensure a federal focus on aviation safety, President Franklin Roosevelt signed the Civil Aeronautics Act in 1938. The legislation established the independent Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA), with a three-member Air Safety Board that would conduct accident investigations and recommend ways of preventing accidents. The legislation also expanded the government's role in civil aviation by giving CAA power to regulate airline fares and determine the routes individual carriers served. In 1940 President Roosevelt split the CAA into two agencies, the Civil Aeronautics Administration, which went back to the Department of Commerce, and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). The offshoot of the original CAA retained responsibility for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB responsibilities included safety rulemaking, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines.

On the eve of America's entry into World War II, for defense purposes, CAA extended its air traffic control system to include operation of airport towers. In the postwar era, ATC became a permanent federal responsibility at most airports. The postwar era also witnessed the advent of commercial jets. The British Overseas Aircraft Corporation introduced the first commercial jet service in 1952. The 36-seat Comet flew at 480 miles per hour. The top cruising speed of the DC-3 piston aircraft, in comparison, was about 180 miles per hour. By the mid-1950s, U.S. companies began designing and building their own jet airliners.

On June 30, 1956, a Trans World Airlines Super Constellation and a United Air Lines DC-7 collided over the Grand Canyon, Arizona, killing all 128 occupants of the two airplanes. The collision occurred while the aircraft were flying under visual flight rules in uncongested airspace. The accident dramatized the fact that, even though U.S. air traffic had more than doubled since the end of World War II, little had been done to mitigate the risk of midair collisions.

Birth of Federal Aviation Agency

On May 21, 1958, Senator A. S. "Mike" Monroney (D-OK) introduced a bill to create an independent Federal Aviation Agency to provide for the safe and efficient use of national airspace. Two month later, on August 23, 1958, the President signed the Federal Aviation Act, which transferred the Civil Aeronautics Authority's functions to a new independent Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) responsible for civil aviation safety. Although FAA technically came into existence with the passage of the act, it actually assumed its functions in stages. Under the provisions of the act, the FAA would begin operations 60 days after the appointment of the first FAA Administrator. On November 1, 1958, retired Air Force General Elwood "Pete" Quesada became the first FAA Administrator. Sixty days later, on December 31, FAA began operations.

With no dedicated office space for the FAA, employees of the growing agency were housed in several widely dispersed buildings around Washington, DC, including some "temporary" buildings of World War II vintage. The FAA worked to obtain a headquarters building to consolidate employees in one location, and on November 22, 1963, FAA's Washington headquarters staff began moving into the newly completed Federal Office Building 10A, at 800 Independence Avenue, SW. Excitement about the new building quickly evaporated on move day as employees heard the news that President Kennedy had been assassinated in Texas.

From Agency to Administration

President Johnson, concerned about the lack of a coordinated transportation system, believed a single department was needed to develop and carry out comprehensive transportation policies and programs across all transportation modes. In 1966, Congress authorized the creation of a cabinet department that would combine major Federal transportation responsibilities. This new Department of Transportation (DOT) began full operations on April l, 1967. On that day, the Federal Aviation Agency became one of several modal organizations within DOT and received a new name, the Federal Aviation Administration. At the same time, Civil Aeronautics Board's accident investigation function was transferred to the new National Transportation Safety Board.

Labor Organizes

In January 1968, New York controllers formed an employee organization, the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization, or PATCO. Within six months, PATCO had a national membership of over 5,000 controllers. To highlight difficult working conditions and growing NAS congestion, in July 1968, the PATCO chairman announced "Operation Air Safety," which he described as a campaign to maintain FAA prescribed separation standards between aircraft. A period of discord between management and PATCO culminated in a 1970 "sickout" by 3,000 controllers. Although controllers subsequently gained additional wage and retirement benefits, tensions between the union and management did not ease.

In February 1972, the National Association of Air Traffic Specialists (NAATS) became the exclusive representative for all flight service station specialists, those controllers who supported general aviation pilots. FAA and NAATS concluded an agency-wide collective bargaining agreement on June 1, 1972, the first such contract between FAA and a national labor organization.

Evolving Duties

Almost from its creation, the agency found itself faced with a number of unexpected challenges. In 1961, for example, the first series of aircraft hijackings in the U.S. occurred. In August of that year, the federal government began employing armed guards, border patrolmen recruited from the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, on civilian planes. In September, President Kennedy signed an amendment to the Federal Aviation Act of 1958, which made it a crime to hijack an aircraft, interfere with an active flight crew, or carry a dangerous weapon aboard an air carrier aircraft. To help enforce the act, a special corps of FAA safety inspectors began training for duty aboard airline flights. In March 1962 Attorney General Robert Kennedy swore in FAA's first "peace officers," as special U.S. deputy marshals. These men worked as safety inspectors for the FAA flight standards organization and carried out their role as armed marshals on flights only when specifically requested to do so.

FAA responsibilities increased even more in the late 1960s. An economic boom brought with it growing concerns about pollution and noise. Aviation, on the cutting edge of technological innovation, became an early area of environmental concern for the public, especially as more and more airplanes traversed the national airspace system (NAS). In 1968, Congress vested in FAA's Administrator the power to prescribe aircraft noise standards.

With continued growth in the nation's airspace, it quickly became evident that airport safety and capacity had to be increased to prevent system delays. Between mid-1959 and mid-1969, the number of aircraft operations at FAA's airport traffic control towers had increased by 112 percent. Schedule delays cost the air carriers millions of dollars annually, not to mention the cost to passengers over and above inconvenience and discomfort. The Airport and Airway Development Act of 1970 placed the agency in charge of a new airport aid program funded by a special aviation trust fund and made FAA responsible for safety certification of airports served by air carriers.

Air Traffic Control Automation

Realizing the need for continued air traffic control system modernization to keep up with technological developments, FAA began modernizing the NAS in the mid-1960s. The civilian ATC system being replaced by NAS En Route Stage A was essentially a manually operated system employing radar, general purpose computers, radio communications, and air traffic controllers. For terminal airspace, the FAA was developing the automated radar traffic control system (ARTS).

To help monitor and even restrict flights moving from one air route traffic control center to another, FAA established the Central Flow Control Facility at its Headquarters. Opened in April 1970, the new facility collected, correlated systemwide air traffic and weather data, detected potential trouble spots, and suggested solutions. On July 29, FAA established the Air Traffic Control Systems Command Center to integrate the functions of the Central Flow Control Facility, Airport Reservation Office, the Air Traffic Service Contingency Command Post, and Central Altitude Reservation Facility.

Deregulation

The Airline Deregulation Act, signed on October 24, 1978, created a highly competitive airline industry. Deregulation increased FAA workload exponentially. FAA had to certify every new airline and there were hundreds of applications after deregulation that the FAA had to review and approve or disapprove. In the immediate years after the deregulation act, FAA flight standards and other offices focused primarily on the new applicants.

By the time airline deregulation became law, FAA had achieved a semi-automated air traffic control system based on a marriage of radar and computer technology. Despite its effectiveness, however, the air traffic control system required enhancement to keep pace with the increased volumes of traffic that resulted from the new, deregulated environment.

Labor Unrest

The labor contract between FAA and PATCO expired in March 1981. Formal contract negotiations had begun in February, but those ended after 37 negotiating sessions. Informal talks, however, continued until June 17, when PATCO rejected a Reagan Administration contract proposal. After the failure of last minute negotiations, on August 3 approximately 12,300 members of the 15,000-member PATCO went on strike, grounding about 35 percent of the nation's 14,200 daily commercial flights. Approximately four hours after the strike began, President Reagan issued the strikers a firm ultimatum — return to work within 48 hours or face permanent dismissal. After expiration of the grace period, FAA fired approximately 11,400 controllers. Most of those fired appealed the action, and FAA eventually reinstated 440 as a result of their appeals.

The strike and dismissals drastically curtailed FAA's controller workforce. To keep the airways open, approximately 3,000 air traffic controller supervisory personnel worked at controlling traffic. FAA assigned assistants to support the controllers, and accelerated the hiring and training of new air traffic personnel. Military controllers arrived at FAA facilities soon after the strike began, and about 800 were ultimately assigned to the agency.

In the aftermath of the strike, PATCO disbanded and the controllers remained without a union until June 19, 1987, when the National Air Traffic Controllers Association became the exclusive representative of terminal and center controllers.

During this time, FAA electronics technicians unionized. On December 29, 1981, the Professional Airway Systems Specialists (PASS) became the exclusive representative of the technicians. FAA and PASS concluded their first national labor agreement during fiscal year 1984.

Technological Innovation

Aviation system disruptions in the aftermath of the PATCO strike led many in FAA to come to the realization that the agency needed a systematic, long-term plan for modernization. In January 1982, FAA publicly released the first annual National Airspace System (NAS) Plan, a comprehensive 20-year blueprint for a state-of-the-art traffic control and air navigation system to accommodate projected growth in air travel over the next 20 years.

As the modernization program evolved, problems in developing ambitious automation systems prompted a change in strategy. FAA shifted its emphasis from the advanced automation system toward enhancing the ATC system through more manageable, step-by-step improvements through the new Free Flight program. At the same time, the agency worked to speed the application of the Global Positioning System satellite technology to civil aeronautics.

In February 1991, FAA replaced the NAS Plan with the more comprehensive Capital Investment Plan. The new plan incorporated the NAS plan projects and included higher levels of automation as well as new radar, communications, and weather forecasting systems. FAA also addressed a wide variety of technical issues as the rapid evolution of aeronautics continued. The Aviation Safety Research Act of 1988, for example, mandated greater emphasis on long-range research planning and on study of such issues as aging aircraft structures and human factors affecting safety. FAA engineers and scientists also investigated areas such as human performance in aeronautical tasks, improvement of runways, and the effects of corrosion on aircraft structures.

Organizational Restructuring

In November 1995, DOT transferred the commercial space transportation office to the FAA. Originally established within DOT in 1984, the new FAA office regulated the U.S. commercial launch industry, licensed commercial launch operations to ensure public health and safety and the safety of property, and protected national security and foreign policy interests of the United States during commercial launch operations. It also issued licenses for commercial launches of orbital and suborbital rockets.

The fiscal year 1996 DOT appropriations bill signed in November 1995 included important provisions for FAA personnel and procurement reform. FAA began the mandated reforms by first creating a new acquisition management system designed to reduce the time and cost of acquiring systems and services. FAA then placed all employees into a new personnel system intended to speed recruitment and reward outstanding employees, while dealing effectively with substandard performance. While the agency was no longer subject to certain Office of Personnel Management rules, its employees continued to enjoy a range of legal protections that applied to other federal workers.

In June 1998, FAA began testing a new compensation plan called core compensation, which replaced the traditional grade and step base pay method with a structure of pay bands, the value of which were determined by comparison with similar jobs in government and private industry. The program also linked compensation with performance. On April 23, 2000, FAA transferred approximately 6,500 employees into the core compensation system.

On September 11, 2001, nineteen radical Islamic extremists with the group al Qaeda penetrated security at three major airports, seized four U.S. domestic airliners, and turned three of the aircraft into missiles that destroyed the World Trade Center in New York City and damaged the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia. Passengers on the fourth plane fought the hijackers, causing the plane to crash in a Pennsylvania field. To prevent any further hijackings, FAA immediately put a ground stop on all traffic for the first time in U.S. aviation history. The tragic events of this day radically changed the FAA. On November 19, 2001, the president signed the Aviation and Transportation Security Act, which among other provisions, established a new agency responsible for aviation security — the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), within DOT. FAA remained responsible for aviation security until February 13, 2002, when TSA took over those responsibilities. The November 2002, passage of the Homeland Security Actmoved TSA into the new Department of Homeland Security on March 1, 2003.

Creation of FAA's Air Traffic Organization (ATO)

In April 2000, President Clinton signed into law the Wendell H. Ford Aviation Investment and Reform Act for the 21st Century, which contained a provision mandating the appointment of a chief operating officer. In a December executive order, the president directed FAA to create a performance-based organization that focused solely on efficient operation of the air traffic control system.

In June 2003, FAA selected its first ATO Chief Operating Officer (COO), Russell Chew. With the COO in place, FAA went forward with a major reorganization of its air traffic and research and acquisition organizations. On November 18, 2003, the Secretary of Transportation announced initial details of the new ATO business structure. The ATO consolidated FAA's air traffic services, research and acquisitions, and Free Flight Program activities into a smaller, more efficient organization with a strict focus on providing the best service for the best value to the aviation industry and the traveling public.

The ATO officially began operations on February 8, 2004. It consisted of five major service units: En Route & Oceanic; Terminal; Flight Services; System Operations; and, Technical Operations. Also included within the organization's top level are five staff-level business groups: Safety; Communications; Operations Planning; Finance; and Acquisition and Business Services. In 2008, the ATO consolidated the service units and staff offices into four business units, each led by a senior vice president.

In line with other agency efforts to improve efficiency, in December 2005, the COO restructured ATO administrative and support functions in the field. In June 2006, he instituted a new ATO Service Center structure. Three service centers replaced the nine service area offices within En Route, Terminal, and Technical Operations. Each of the service centers was made up of five functional groups: administrative services, business services, safety assurance, system support, and planning and requirements. A sixth group, engineering services, was a shared resource and remained in place in the existing locations.

With the ATO structure in place, the agency's first COO resigned from FAA on February 23, 2007. Administrator Marion Blakey assigned COO responsibilities to Deputy Administrator Robert Sturgell as collateral duties until a new COO came on board. On October 1, 2007, Administrator Blakey hired the agency's second COO, Hank Krakowski.

The Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen)

The Vision 100 — Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act, signed into law in December 2003, endorsed the concept of a Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen). The following month, the DOT Secretary announced plans for a new, multi-year, multi-agency effort to develop an air transportation system for the year 2025 and beyond. He subsequently established a Joint Planning and Development Office (JPDO) at the FAA comprised of representatives from FAA, NASA, the Departments of Transportation, Defense, Homeland Security, and Commerce, and the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy to create and carry out an integrated plan for NextGen. On December 15, 2004, DOT unveiled the Integrated Plan for the Next Generation Air Transportation System, which laid out goals, objectives, and requirements necessary to create the NextGen system.

Enhancing Capacity

When constraints in en route airspace and the airspace surrounding U.S. airports began to result in flight delays and schedule disruptions, FAA began to look for immediate solutions while continuing NextGen activities. To improve capacity, FAA began implementing a number of new concepts. The Required Navigation Performance (RNP) concept, for example, would take advantage of new onboard technologies for precision guidance to help transition the NAS from reliance on airways running over ground-based navigation aids to a point-to-point navigation concept. FAA also implemented the use of Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM), which reduced the minimum vertical separation between aircraft from 2,000 feet to 1,000 feet for all properly equipped aircraft flying between 29,000 feet and 41,000 feet. This increased the routes and altitudes available and allowed more efficient routings that would save time and fuel.

Safety First, Last, and Always

Between 2001 and 2007, aviation witnessed one of its safest periods for scheduled air carriers. Not counting the terrorist activities of September 11, 2001, there were only three fatal accidents in 2001; none in 2002; two in 2003; one in 2004; three in 2005; two in 2006; and none in 2007. Fatal accidents became rare events with only .01 accidents per 100,000 flight hours or .018 accidents per 100,000 departures.

Conclusion

Thanks to the work of FAA, over the past 50 years aviation has become central to the way we live and do business, linking people from coast to coast and connecting America to the world. In fact, FAA has created the safest, most reliable, most efficient, and most productive air transportation system in the world.

To ensure aviation's future viability, FAA is now working with its federal and industry partners to develop a flexible aerospace system that fully responds to the changing needs of businesses and customers in the 21st Century. The strength of the NextGen system depends on lower costs, improved service, greater capacity, and smarter security measures. That is why FAA has defined a vision of the future that integrates achievements in safety, security, efficiency, and environmental compatibility.









Everybody who has flown sometime, is familiar with the airport vehicles. There’s thousands of them around the world, different models and different brands. Today we gonna see some of them, and their main features.

Aircraft steps

This steps provide to passengers a connection from the ground to the airplane. It is often mounted on a light truck or a van, and it can be a extensible or fixed stairs.

Luggage truck

This little truck tows a whole load of packed trailers,  with all the passengers’ luggage. Although, the ULD containers are widespread. The Unit Load Device, is a container to load the baggage in, and they fit in the aircraft deck, so the luggage truck tows ULD instead of rusty trailers.

Fuel tanker

That is, a truck full of fuel (usually loaded with Jet A-1, but 100LL for GA is Ok as well) that provides airplanes with kerosene. It’s basically made up of a rear tank, a pump and a hose. Sometimes, they are simply a pump and they get the fuel from a ground hydrant.

Bendy bus

The bendy bus is comprised of two rigid parts, and it is articulated. They are used as people mover, to transport passengers from the terminal to the remote aircrafts. It’s also possible to use a single bus though.

Fire truck

The fire truck is a special motor vehicle, adapted to fight the fire in case of an emergency landing or a crash. They usually have a water tank and a water gun, able to launch compressed water to parts set on fire up to 200 feet.

Catering truck

This van serves the airplanes with the most extraordinary and exquisite (¬¬’) airline food, to make passengers feel comfortable when flying. It is basically a big metal box that can be lifted, in order to reach the aircraft height.

Aircraft tow

This tow is just a truck that it frequently lifts the front wheel of the aircraft, and push it back to the correct position to start the taxi to the runway. Sometimes, this little bugs cannot lift the aircraft, so there’s a towing bar that is attached to the front wheel and the truck just tow it back.













MIDTERM TOPICS

  1. RUNWAY


DEFINTION:


A RUNWAY (RWY) is a strip of land at an airport on which aircraft can take off and land and forms part of the maneuvering area. Runways may be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ice, or salt).



  1. DESIGNING AN AIRPORT RUNWAY



The two more important sizes are he runway length and the width. Depending on the aircraft expected to operate on the airport, you might use larger or shorter distance. There is no specific runway length establish by FAA or ICAO, but could change from 200 meters to infinite (if we could have that region). About the runway width ii is mandatory to be greater than 18 meters up to 150 meters (around the runway) and shoulders up to 15 meters (paved margins at both sides of the runway).



  1. RUNWAY PAVEMENT SURFACE


The choice of material used to construct the runway depends on the use and the local ground conditions. For major airport, where the ground conditions permit, the most satisfactory type of pavement for long-term minimum maintenance is concrete. For pavement designs borings are taken to determine the sub grade condition, and based on the relative bearing capacity of the sub grade, the specification are established.

For pavement designs, borings are taken to determine the subgrade condition, and based on the relative bearing capacity of the subgrade, the specifications are established. For heavy-duty commercial aircraft, the pavement thickness, no matter what the top surface, varies from 10 in (250 mm) to 4 ft (1 m), including subgrade.

Airport pavements have been designed by two methods. The first, Westergaard, is based on the assumption that the pavement is an elastic plate supported on a heavy fluid base with a uniform reaction coefficient known as the K value[disambiguation needed]. Experience has shown that the K values on which the formula was developed are not applicable for newer aircraft with very large footprint pressures.

The second method is called the California bearing ratio and was developed in the late 1940s. It is an extrapolation of the original test results, which are not applicable to modern aircraft pavements or to modern aircraft landing gear. Some designs were made by a mixture of these two design theories.

A more recent method is an analytical system based on the introduction of vehicle response as an important design parameter. Essentially it takes into account all factors, including the traffic conditions, service life, materials used in the construction, and, especially important, the dynamic response of the vehicles using the landing area.

Because airport pavement construction is so expensive, every effort is made to minimize the stresses imparted to the pavement by aircraft. Manufacturers of the larger planes design landing gear so that the weight of the plane is supported on larger and more numerous tires. Attention is also paid to the characteristics of the landing gear itself, so that adverse effects on the pavement are minimized. Sometimes it is possible to reinforce a pavement for higher loading by applying an overlay of asphaltic concrete or portland cement concrete that is bonded to the original slab.

Post-tensioning concrete has been developed for the runway surface. This permits the use of thinner pavements and should result in longer concrete pavement life. Because of the susceptibility of thinner pavements to frost heave, this process is generally applicable only where there is no appreciable frost action.

Pavement surface

Runway pavement surface is prepared and maintained to maximize friction for wheel braking. To minimize hydroplaning following heavy rain, the pavement surface is usually grooved so that the surface water film flows into the grooves and the peaks between grooves will still be in contact with the aircraft tires. To maintain the macrotexturing built into the runway by the grooves, maintenance crews engage in airfield rubber removal or hydrocleaning in order to meet required FAA friction levels.

Surface Type Codes

In aviation charts, the surface type is usually abbreviated to a three-letter code.

The most common hard surface types are Asphalt and Concrete. The most common soft surface types are Grass and Gravel.




  1. RUNWAY THICKNESS


The development of the pavement design proceeds along a number of paths. Exploratory borings are taken to determine the subgrade condition, and based upon relative bearing capacity of the subgrade, different pavement specifications are established. Typically, for heavy-duty commercial aircraft, the pavement thickness, no matter what the top surface, varies from as little as 10 inches (25 centimetres) to as much as 4 ft (1 m), including subgrade.
.


  1. RUNWAY WIDTH



About the runway width it is mandatory to be greater than 18 meters up to 60 meters (able to land an A380). There are other physical matters, like strips up to 150 meters (around the runway) and shoulders up to 15 meters (paved margins at both sides of the runway).



  1. RUNWAY LENGTH

The runway length provided here are some of the longest in the world. Not a single one is below 4,000 m (12,100 ft). With airliners like the Airbus 380 becoming more common, these runway dimensions may become the standard. The longest is the Qamdo Bangda Airport in China at 5,800 m (18,045 ft).

Runway Dimensions (US)

The Denver International Airport runway is 4,877 m (16,000 ft). The runway at John F. Kennedy International Airport is about 4,442 m or 14,572 ft. The Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport runway is 4,085 m.

The runways in US Air Forces bases are also long. The Edwards Air Force Base runway is 4,576 m (15,013 ft). The runway length at Eielson Air Force Base is 4,429 m or 14,530 ft. The Naval Air Station Fallon runway is 4,268 m (14,003 ft).

Runway Dimensions (China)

Besides the Qamdo Bangda Airport, China’s other airports have large runways. The Zhuhai Sanzao Airport has a runway measuring 4,120 m (which is about 13,517 ft). The Shanghai Pudong International Airport meanwhile, has a runway measuring 4,000 m (13,123 ft).

Runway Dimensions (Russia)

The Ramenskoye Airport runway is 5,403 m (17,726 ft). Another long runway is at the Khabarovsk Novy Airport at 4,000 m (or 13,123 ft). The runway at Ulyanovsk Vostochny Airport has been measured at 5,000 m (16,404 ft).

Runway Dimensions (Saudi Arabia)

The runway length at the Prince Mohammad Bin Abdulaziz Airport is 4,008 m (13,149 ft). At the King Fahd International Airport, it is 4,000 m or 13,123 ft, while at the Prince Sultan Air Base the runway is 4,006 m (13,143 ft). The Thumamah Airport has a runway 4,014 m (13,170 ft) long.


  1. RUNWAY CONFIGURATIONS AND EXAMPLES


A layout or design of a runway(s), where operations on the particular runway(s) being used at a given time are mutually dependent. A large airport can have two or more runway configurations operating simultaneously. Some of the configurations are shown in the illustration.


This is the simplest of the 4 basic configurations. It is one runway optimally positioned for prevailing winds, noise, land use and other determining factors. During VFR (Visual Flight Rules) conditions, this one runway should accommodate up to 99 light aircraft operations per hour. While under IFR (Instrument Flight Rule) conditions, it would accommodate between 42 to 53 operations per hour depending on the mix of traffic and navigational aids available at the airport.




There are 4 types of parallel runways. These are named according to how closely they are placed next to each other. Operations per hour will vary depending on the total number of runways and the mix of the aircraft. In IFR conditions for predominantly light aircraft, the number of operations would range between 64-128 per hour.





 





Two runways that diverge from different directions but do NOT intersect form a shape that looks like an “open-V” are called open-V runways. This configuration is useful when there is little to no wind as it allows for both runways to be used at the same time. When the winds become strong in one direction, then only one runway will be used. When take-offs and landings are made away from the two closer ends. The number of operations per hour can be reduced by 50%.





Two or more runways that cross each other are classified as intersecting runway. This type of configuration is used when there are relatively strong prevailing winds from more than one direction during the year. When the winds are strong from one direction, operations will be limited to only one runway. With relatively light winds, both runways can be used simultaneously. The greatest capacity for operation is accomplished when the intersection is close to the take-off end and the landing threshold. There are three subtypes of intersecting runway configuration namely:


  1. TYPES OF RUNWAY





  1. DECLARED DISTANCES


TORA

Takeoff Run Available - The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off.


TODA

Takeoff Distance Available - The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the clearway, if clearway is provided.


ASDA

Accelerate-Stop Distance Available - The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the stopway, if stopway is provided.


LDA

Landing Distance Available - The length of runway which is declared available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane landing.


EDA

Emergency Distance Available - LDA (or TORA) plus a stopway.



  1. SECTIONS OF RUNWAY








  1. RUNWAY MARKINGS



There are runway markings and signs on any runway. Larger runways have a distance remaining sign (black box with white numbers). This sign uses a single number to indicate the thousands of feet remaining, so 7 will indicate 7,000 ft (2,134 m) remaining. The runway threshold is marked by a line of green lights.



  1. RUNWAY LIGHTINGS


HISTORY OF RUNWAY LIGHTING

The first runway lighting appeared in 1930 at Cleveland Municipal Airport (now known as Cleveland Hopkins International Airport) in Cleveland, Ohio. A line of lights on an airfield or elsewhere to guide aircraft in taking off or coming in to land or an illuminated runway is sometimes also known as a flare path.



TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

Runway lighting is used at airports which allow night landings. Seen from the air, runway lights form an outline of the runway. A particular runway may have some or all of the following.













  1. RUNWAY IDENTIFICATION NUMBER


Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally one tenth of the magnetic azimuth of the runway's heading: a runway numbered 09 points east (90°), runway 18 is south (180°), runway 27 points west (270°) and runway 36 points to the north (360° rather than 0°)Airport Layout

In navigation and surveying, all measurement of direction is performed by using the numbers of a compass. A compass is a 360° circle where 0/360° is North, 90° is East, 180° is South, and 270° is West. Runways are laid out according to the numbers on a compass. A runway's compass direction is indicated by a large number painted at the end of each runway. Preceding that number are 8 white stripes. Following that number by 500 feet is the "touchdown zone" which is identified by 6 white stripes. A runway's number is not written in degrees, but is given a shorthand format. For example, a runway with a marking of "14" is actually close to (if not a direct heading of) 140 degrees. This is a southeast compass heading. A runway with a marking of "31" has a compass heading of 310 degrees, that is, a northwest direction. For simplicity, the FAA rounds off the precise heading to the nearest tens.

For example, runway 7 might have a precise heading of 68 degrees, but is rounded off to 70 degrees.

Each runway has a different number on each end. Look at the diagram below. One end of the runway is facing due west while the other end of the runway is facing due east. The compass direction for due west is 270 degrees ("27"). The compass direction for due east is 90 degrees ("9"). All runways follow this directional layout. This runway would be referred to as "Runway 9-27" because of its east-west orientation.



Runway sign at Madrid-Barajas Airport, Spain.

Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earth's surface and the magnetic bearing will change. Depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, this will affect some runways more than others. For example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, the Runway would still be Runway 23. If on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226 (Runway 23), and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is quite slow, runway designation changes are uncommon, and not welcomed, as they require an accompanying change in aeronautical charts and descriptive documents. When runway designations do change, especially at major airports, it is often changed overnight as taxiway signs need to be changed and the huge numbers at each end of the runway need to be repainted to the new runway designators. In July 2009 for example, London Stansted Airport in the United Kingdom changed its runway designations from 05/23 to 04/22 overnight.

For fixed-wing aircraft it is advantageous to perform take-offs and landings into the wind to reduce takeoff roll and reduce the ground speed needed to attain flying speed. Larger airports usually have several runways in different directions, so that one can be selected that is most nearly aligned with the wind. Airports with one runway are often constructed to be aligned with the prevailing wind.

Runway dimensions vary from as small as 245 m (804 ft) long and 8 m (26 ft) wide in smaller general aviation airports, to 5,500 m (18,045 ft) long and 80 m (262 ft) wide at large international airports built to accommodate the largest jets, to the huge 11,917 m (39,098 ft) x 274 m (899 ft) lake bed runway 17/35 at Edwards Air Force Base in California - a landing site for the Space Shuttle.[3]

[edit] Placement and grouping

Two runways pointing in the same direction are classed as dual or parallel runways depending on the separation distance. In some countries, flight rules mandate that only one runway may be



  1. TAXIWAY


A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with ramps, hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have hard surface such as asphalt or concrete, although smaller airports sometimes use gravel or grass.


Busy airports typically construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways in order to allow aircraft to leave the runway at higher speeds. This allows the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another to land in a shorter space of time.


  1. TAXIWAY MARKINGS















  1. TAXIWAY LIGHTING








  1. AIRPORT APRON

An airport apron is otherwise known as an airport ramp. It is an actual part of an airport and it serves its own purpose in day to day operations. Simply put, it is the part of the airport that serves as the parking area of airplanes. It is typically a lot more accessible for individuals compared to the taxiway or the airport’s runway.

The airport apron is something like a loading dock where airplanes and other aircraft are loaded and unloaded. This is also the area where airplanes are refueled. The airport ramp is also the specific area in the airport where passengers board the plane. And like much of the other places in an airport, it isn’t accessible to everyone in general. Only those who have the proper licenses and authorization may enter and work in the apron.

Talking about airport apron sizes, you would imagine it to cover a huge area since it should be able to accommodate several airplanes at any given time. An international airport can have an apron with a total area larger than 200 hectares or two million square meters.

The sizes of airport ramps generally depend on the size of the airport, its design, and its intended capacity. Remember that people also work on different aircrafts in the ramp or apron. It serves other purposes other than loading and unloading passengers and cargo.

Airport Apron/Airport Ramp Management

Every vehicle and everyone that moves in airport ramp are considered ‘apron traffic’. Take note that the apron or ramp is always to be considered a work area. There is no place for loitering in this part of the airport. Since this area is rather busy one should expect accident and other incidents to occur. Thus there is a need to manage the operations of the apron.

As per instructions of the International Civil Aviation Organization, the airport ramp should never be considered or used as an area to maneuver an aircraft. This is only one of the regulations used to ensure the protection of all who use this facility.

Ramp/Apron Safety

One of the biggest concerns regarding ramps is personnel, aircraft, and overall facility safety. It is quite sad that ramp accidents often occur since this area of an airport is a bit hazardous. Workers either walk into moving aircrafts or get hit by one. Several safety rules are being implemented in this working area.

One of the most fundamental safety regulations is that if you have no business to be in the ramp then don’t walk around in there. Enter the ramp area only when you are working on an aircraft. If not then it would be better to simply just stay away. Another important rule is to always wear hearing protection. The apron is a particularly noisy area with jet turbines generating really loud noise.

The ramp or apron area is the part of the airport where airplanes get to park, refuel, load/unload, and get boarded. Those who are not working in the area should stay away from this workplace. The size of an apron depends on the airport’s capacity, usually covering several hectares of land area for international airports.



  1. PRECISION APPROACH PATH INDICATOR (PAPI) LIGHTS


Description: The precision approach path indicator lights (PAPI) consists of four individual units containing two lights each.

Purpose: The PAPI lights assist pilots in determining the appropriate approach path when landing on runway 14 or runway 32 at NRRA. Pilots can activate the lights by clicking their microphone on a frequency of 122.975 MHz. The lights will activate for 15 minutes and then automatically turn off. The lights are an important safety feature at large and medium size airports.

Location: NRRA has two sets of PAPI lights. One is located next to runway 14 and the other next to runway 32. The lights are powered by a constant current regulator located in the airport maintenance building next to the automobile parking lot.

The judgement of the lights are as followed:

2 red 2 white = correct glideslope
4 white = youre too high
4 red = your too low

Cost: The replacement cost of the PAPI lights is approximately $40,000.;

the 4 red lights are the PAPI's



  1. VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATOR (VASI) LIGHTS

  2. OBSTRUCTION LIGHTS

  3. AIRPORT BEACON LIGHTS






XIV. PRECISION APPROACH PATH INDICATOR (PAPI) LIGHTS

Precision Approach Path Indicator Lights (PAPI)





VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATORS (VASI)


The VASI system provides the pilot with visual approach slope angle information while on final approach. The VASI system is helpful during daylight or night operations. There are three standard VASI system configurations: VASI-4. VASI-12, and VASI- 16. We will discuss the VASI-12 system as it will appear on most Navy airfields. The VASI system consists of twelve light boxes with three lights in each box. There is one complete system for each end of the runway. There are two pairs of bars-one pair of bars on each side of the runway. Each wing bar is composed of three light boxes (fig. 6-36). The set of bars nearest the threshold is called the downwind bars. and the other pair. the upwind bars. Each light box projects a beam of light that is white (clear) in its upper part and red in its lower part. The lights are arranged so that the pilot of an airplane, during the approach. sees all of the wing bar lights as red when below the glide slope. When on the glide slope. the pilot sees the downwind bar lights as white and the upwind bar as red. When above the glide slope, the pilot sees all the wing bar lights as white.

Visual Approach Slope Indicators (VASI, PAPI)

There are several forms of VASI’s. All employ lights that indicate a correct slope(s) for approach to landing. They may be used both for day and night operation. They provide an “on slope” glide slope angle of approximately 3°. The 2 bar VASI has 2 ranks of lights. Each rank may consist of one light or two lights side by side. You are “on glide slope” as shown in the center diagram (red over white). You are too high if both ranks are white, as on right. You are too low then both ranks are red as shown on left.

The 3 bar VASI has 3 ranks of lights, The two center show “on glide path” indications. The leftmost is a low path, and the rightmost is a high path. The all red is too low. The all white indication is too high.

Another approach slope indicator is the Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI). The system provides a more precise glides lope indication than does VASI. When all 4 lights are white, you are too high. When all are red, you are too low. When 2 are red and 2 are white you are on a 3° path. Three white on the left indicate a path of 3.2°. Three red on right indicate a 2.8° path. The open clear circles indicate white. The darkened circles indicate red.

The Tri-Color system is a single light that projects 3 colors. The above glide path indication is amber. On glide slope is Green. Below glide slope is red. When the aircraft descends from green to red, the pilot may see amber during the transition.

There is a similar system called the Pulsating Visual Approach Slope Indicator.(Not shown). It is somewhat similar to the Tri-color except a solid white indicates on glide path; steady red on a slightly low path. Pulsating white indicates too high. Pulsating red means too low.

Airport Beacons

Rotating beacons which operate at night and during times of poor weather assist the pilot to locate the airport from the air.

Landing Indicators

A number of different wind and landing indicators are in use at airports. Virtually all airports have one or more of these indicators.

A segmented circle will be located near the center of the airport. The "L" shaped ears indicate landing pattern direction. The red cone is called a wind sock and indicates wind direction. The Tetrahedron (T) indicates the runway in use. It is usually manually set.

Wind Indicators

DEFINITION OF AVIATION OBSTRUCTION LIGHT

Definition of Obstruction Light:

A light indicating the presence of an object, which is dangerous to an aircraft in flight. The obstruction light is to be mounted at the highest point of the wind cone assembly to avoid being obscured by any other part when viewed from above.

Evolution of Obstruction Lights:

Aviation obstruction lights has it’s origins in Europe and the United States in the early 1920s when night flying began to be a practical proposition. It was soon realized that critical obstacles needed to be lit in order to prevent collisions. Various lighting schemes were tried in various places – there was not the standardization that we have today through ICAO.
Lighthouse beacons or Obstruction Lights are used to protect accidents caused due to the ship strike to obstacles in the sea like islands, rocks etc. These Obstruction Lights were started in Seventeenth century. 

Changing Technology of Obstruction Lights

For towers that require incandescent lighting, regular tower-light inspection and maintenance is a task that tower owners must undertake. Broadcasting's early days saw many station engineers climbing the tower themselves. The greater availability of qualified tower climbers has turned this into a regularly occurring event. Regardless, the problem of changing a burned-out lamp still remains, tower climbers don't come cheap, and tower lights seldom fail at a convenient time. The problem is solved by solid state Light Emitting Diodes as replacements for the beacons and obstruction lights. LED Light is a better option because of their longer lifespan, high intensity and lower consumption of power compared to filament lamps.
Xenon and Neon lamps are also getting popular in the field of obstruction lights but they are generally used for High intensity obstruction lights. 

Aviation Obstruction Lights:

Obstruction Light are high-medium-low-intensity lighting devices that are attached to tall structures and used as collision avoidance measures. Such devices make the structure much more visible to passing aviation / aircraft and are usually used at night, although in some countries they are used in the daytime also. These aviation lights need to be of sufficient brightness in order to be visible for miles around the structure.
Traditionally, red lamps (or beacons/hazard) use incandescent filament bulbs. In order to improve the otherwise quite short lifespan, they are made with a ruggedised design and are run below normal operating power (under-running). A recent development has been the use of arrays of high power red LEDs in place of incandescent bulbs, which has only been possible since the development of LEDs of sufficient brightness. LED based aviation lamps have a significantly longer lifespan than incandescent bulbs, thus reducing maintenance costs and increasing reliability.
Spectrum now offers the benefits of LED lighting in its collection of aviation warning light and LED aviation light. These aviation lights are installed atop high rise structures, buildings and towers and help in protecting the damage to life and property. 
We offer superior quality medium and low intensity aviation light, which meet all specification of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), Montreal, Canada. These provide the benefits of LED lighting technology and require low initial as well as operating costs and serve for long. These aviation lights can be installed at high-rise structures as per their heights and widths and are vital for safe passage for aviation, and protection of valuable human life and property.
Spectrum has developed these LED based models with the objective of reducing the power consumption without making any compromise to the performance and specifications required. 


RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT:

We are a quality conscious company that places quality as the nucleus of all its endeavors. The entire production process is carefully monitored at every level and special attention is paid on the procurement of the raw materials. After the production, our products are subjected to multiple tests against extreme heat, water and chemicals and then only we approve them for packaging and delivery. All our lighting systems are checked for their performance in terms of illumination and defect.

MEDIUM INTENSITY

Medium intensity obstruction lights are required to be installed at high-rise buildings, which are more than 100 meters above the ground level. Our medium intensity light is designed to give a working life of 100,000 hours coupled with the advantages of lesser Power consumption. In the unlikely event of any malfunction or problem, the unit is provided with an in-built, audio-visual alarm system to warn the maintenance team.

LOW INTENSITY

Making use of the most advanced technologies we created new age low intensity LED lights. This is a special object that is no longer dependent on cumbersome, expensive incandescent bulbs and fluorescent lights. Our LED low intensity lights can deliver more at a lesser cost. Most importantly, they are maintenance free. They are safe, reliable, energy efficient (consume just 10% of the energy of an incandescent bulb) and eco-friendly.

ADVANTAGES

1. Use of quality components and sophisticated technology reduce chances of maintenance and replacement.
2. Low power consumption, which leads to huge savings on electricity bills.
3. SMPS redundant parallel power supply ensures improved product life.
4. Optimized for solar based, stand-alone applications.
5. Superior quality. We at Spectrum employ LEDs & other quality components manufactured by global market leaders and follow all quality checking procedures during different stage of production.

FINALS TOPIC

  1. AIRSPACE

AIRSPACE means the portion of the atmosphere controlled by a country above its territory, including its territorial waters or, more generally, any specific three-dimensional portion of the atmosphere.

  1. TYPES OF AIRSPACE

There are two categories of airspace: REGULATORY and NON-REGULATORY

Within these two categories are 4 kinds of airspace:

  1. Controlled airspace

Controlled airspace exists where it is deemed necessary that air traffic control has some form of positive executive control over aircraft flying in that airspace.

  1. Uncontrolled airspace

Uncontrolled airspace is airspace in which air traffic control does not exert any executive authority, although it may act in an advisory manner.

  1. Special Use

  2. Other airspace

REGULATORY AIRSPACE includes the following kinds of airspace:

  1. CLASS A, B, C, D, and E.

  2. RESTRICTED AIRSPACE

  3. PROHIBITED AIRSPACE

NON-REGULATORY AIRSAPACE includes:

  1. MILITARY OPERATTINS AREAS (MOA)

  2. ALERT AREAS/CONTROLLED FIRING AREAS

The categories and types of airspace are dictated by a few factors such as:

  1. The complexity or density of aircraft movements;

  2. The nature of the operations conducted within that airspace

  3. The level of safety requires; and

  4. The national and public interest

  1. CONTROLLED AIRSPACE

CONTROLLED AIRSPACE is a generic term that covers the different classification of airspace and defined dimensions within which air traffic control service is provided to flight conducted under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) and to flights conducted to Visual Flight Rules (VFR) in accordance with the airspace classification.



As a PILOT-IN-COMMAND (PIC) it is your responsibility to ensure that you comply with all equipment and radio communication requirements prior to entering Class B, C, or D.

CLASS "A" AIRSPACE

Class "A" airspace is 18,000 feet up to Flight Level (FL) 600 (60,000 feet).

You cannot operate VFR in this airspace.

CLASS "B" AIRSPACE

The airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet that surrounds the busiest airports in the U.S. The configuration is often referred to as resembling a "upside down wedding cake." Each one of these guys is a little different, depending on the airport's configuration. You can't fly in this airspace without a clearance from ATC (Air Traffic Control).

You can operate VFR in this airspace, however you must have a clearance from ATC to do so. You must have 3 miles of visibility, and remain "clear of clouds."

CLASS "C" AIRSPACE

This is the airspace reserved for the garden-variety commercial airports. It can be altered for regional conditions, but is generally a circle around the airport that is 5 miles in diameter from the surface to 1,200 feet AGL (Above Ground Level), and then expands to a 10 mile diameter from that point to 4,000 feet AGL.

You can operate VFR in this airspace, however you must establish two-way radio communications before entry. You must have 3 miles of visibility, and remain 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, and 2,000 feet horizontal distances away from clouds.

CLASS "D" AIRSPACE

For all intents and purposes, the airspace set aside for airports that have control towers. The airspace is from the surface up to 2,500 feet, and the radius is usually five miles. There may be "keys" that extend out from the circle.

You can operate VFR in this airspace, however you must establish two-way radio communications before entry. You must have 3 miles of visibility, and remain 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, and 2,000 feet horizontal distances away from clouds.

CLASS "E" AIRSPACE

This is a complex definition because it covers the rest of the airspace not designated in above Classes. If it is Controlled Airspace, and it is not A, B, C, or D, then it is Class "E". All of the Airways (the "V Routes") are in this airspace. Unless otherwise designated, like the "V Routes" for example, it commences at 14,500 feet and extends up to 18,000 feet.

You can operate VFR in this airspace, however you must have 3 miles of visibility, and remain 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, and 2,000 feet horizontal distances away from clouds.

  1. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLER

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLER is the person who operates the air traffic control systems to expedite and maintain a safe and orderly flow of air traffic.

They apply separation rules to keep aircraft from each other in their area of responsibility and move all aircraft safely and efficiently through their assigned sector of airspace.

Because controllers have an incredibly large responsibility while ob duty, the ATC profession is regarded around the world as one of the most difficult jobs today, and can be notoriously stressful depending on many variables (equipment, configurations, weather, traffic volume, human factors, etc.)



  1. CONTROL TOWER

CONTROL TOWER, or more specifically AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL TOWER, is the name of the airport building from which the air traffic control unit controls the movement of aircraft on and around the airport.

Control towers operate to control the traffic for other forms of transportation such as rail transport or movable bridges. Most of the world’s airports are non-towered or mandatory frequency- only minority of airports has enough traffic to justify a control tower, though some airports may open temporary tower units during special events like an air show.

  1. RADAR

RADAR is an object detection system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as aircrafts, ships, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the U.S. Navy as an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging.



  1. VERTICAL SEPARATION

Between the surface and an altitude of 29,000 ft (8,800 m), no aircraft should come closer vertically than 1,000 ft or 300 m (in those countries that express altitude in meters), unless some form of horizontal separation is provided.

Above 29,000 ft (8,000 m) no aircraft shall come closer than 2,000 ft (600 m), except in airspace where Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) can be applied.

  1. HORIZONTAL SEPARATION

If any two aircraft separated by less than the vertical separation minimum, then some form of horizontal separation must exist.

  1. LATERAL SEPARATION

LATERAL SEPARATION MINIMA are usually based upon the position of the aircraft as derived visually, from dead reckoning or internal navigation sources, or from radio navigation aids (‘beacons’).



In other case of beacons to be separated, the aircraft must be a certain distance from the beacon (measured by time or by DME) and their tracks to or from the beacon must diverge by a minimum angle.



Other lateral separation may be defined by the geography of pre-determined routes, for example the North Atlantic Track System.



  1. REDUCED VERTICAL SEPARATION MINIMA (RVSM)

In certain airspace, between 29,000 and 41,000 ft (12,500 m), pairs of aircraft equipped with more modern altimeter and autopilot systems can be vertically separated by minimum of 1,000 ft (300 m) rather than the standard 2,000 ft (600 m).



RVSM airspace encompasses Europe, North America, parts of Asia and Africa and both the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.

  1. UNCONTROLLED AIRSPACE (CLASS G)

CLASS G airspace is also known as UNCONTROLLED AIRSPACE and is the portion that has not been designated as Class A, B, C, D, or E airspace. Class G airspace extends from the surface to the base of the overlying Class E airspace.

Although air traffic control has no authority or responsibility to control air traffic, pilots should remember that there are still VFR minimum which apply to Class G airspace.

  1. LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION

If two aircraft are not laterally separated, and are following tracks within 45 degrees of each other (or the reciprocal), then they are said to be following the same route and some form of longitudinal separation must exist.



LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION can be based upon time or distance as measure by DME. The golden rule is the 15 minute rule: no two aircraft following the same route must come within 15 minutes flying time of each other. In areas with good navaid cover this reduces to 10 minutes; if the preceding aircraft is faster than the following one then this can be reduced further depending of the difference in speed

  1. RADAR SEPARATION

RADAR SEPARATION is applied by a controller observing that the radar returns from the two aircraft are a certain minimum horizontal distance away from each other, as observed on a suitably calibrated radar system. The actual distance used varies: 5 nmi (9 km) is common in en route airspace, 3 NM is common in terminal airspace at lower levels. On occasion 10 NM may be used, especially at long range or in regions of less reliable radar cover.



By FAA Rules, when an aircraft is:



  1. Less than 40 miles from the (radar) antenna, horizontal separation is 3 miles from obstructions or other aircraft.

  2. 40 miles or more from the (radar) antenna, horizontal separation is 5 miles from obstructions or other aircraft.

  3. Terminal area for single sensor (ASR-9) with Mode S, when less than 60 miles from the antenna, horizontal separation is 3 miles from other aircraft.



RADAR SEPARATION is applied by a controller observing that the radar returns from the two aircraft are a certain minimum horizontal distance away from each other, as observed on a suitably calibrated radar system. The actual distance used varies: 5 nmi (9 km) is common in en route airspace, 3 NM is common in terminal airspace at lower levels. On occasion 10 NM may be used, especially at long range or in regions of less reliable radar cover.



By FAA Rules, when an aircraft is:



  1. Less than 40 miles from the (radar) antenna, horizontal separation is 3 miles from obstructions or other aircraft.

  2. 40 miles or more from the (radar) antenna, horizontal separation is 5 miles from obstructions or other aircraft.

  3. Terminal area for single sensor (ASR-9) with Mode S, when less than 60 miles from the antenna, horizontal separation is 3 miles from other aircraft.

  1. VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR)

VFR flight is, basically flying an aircraft with reference to outside visual information, with a flight visibility of three miles, and remaining 1,000 feet away from any clouds. However, as with most every subject in aviation, it becomes a little more complex than this.

Visual flight rules (VFR) are a set of regulations which allow a pilot to operate an aircraft in weather conditions generally clear enough to allow the pilot to see where the aircraft is going. Specifically, the weather must be better than basic VFR weather minimums, as specified in the rules of the relevant aviation authority. If the weather is worse than VFR minimums, pilots are required to use instrument flight rules.

  1. SPECIAL VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (SVFR)

This is a clearance, from ATC, permitting a VFR flight to operate in controlled airspace with minimums of 1 mile visibility, and "clear of clouds/"

SPECIAL VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (SVFR) are a set of aviation regulations under which a pilot may operate an aircraft.


Flight under SVFR is only allowed in control zones, and always requires clearance from air traffic control (ATC). It usually happens fewer than two circumstances:

The aircraft need not necessarily be equipped for flight under IFR, and the aircraft must remain clear of clouds and maintain certain flight visibility minimums (1850 metres according to ICAO, one statute mile in the US, 10 km flight visibility and ground in sight in the UK). The pilot continues to be responsible for obstacle and terrain clearance.

An example of the use of SVFR is when a flight wishes to leave an airport in a control zone, to fly VFR in uncontrolled airspace, when the visibility is below the minimum for VFR flight in the control zone but not below the lower minimum for VFR flight in uncontrolled airspace.

According to the FAA, SVFR at night requires an IFR-equipped aircraft and an IFR-rated pilot in command.

  1. INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR)

INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES (IFR) are regulations and procedures for flying aircraft by referring only to the aircraft instrument panel for navigation. Even if nothing can be seen outside the cockpit windows, an IFR-rated pilot can fly while looking only at the instrument panel. IFR-rated pilots are authorized to fly through clouds.

Air Traffic Control procedures and airspace rules are designed to maintain separation from other aircraft. Training is normally done in simulated IFR conditions with training aids such as blockalls to help a pilot concentrate only on the instrument panel.

Most scheduled airline flights operate under IFR. Visual Flight Rules (VFR) are often used for sight-seeing flights, aerial photography, or lift services for parachute jumping. Pilots flying under VFR are not permitted to fly through clouds. Many non-commercial, private recreational aircraft also operate under VFR whenever the sky is clear. Under VFR, the pilot is primarily responsible for navigation, obstacle clearance and maintaining separation from other aircraft using the see-and-avoid concept.

  1. GROUND CONTROL

GROUND CONTROL (sometimes known as Ground Movement Control abbreviated to GMC or Surface Movement Control abbreviated to SMC) is responsible for the airport "movement" areas, as well as areas not released to the airlines or other users.

This generally includes all taxiways, inactive runways, holding areas, and some transitional aprons or intersections where aircraft arrive, having vacated the runway or departure gate. Exact areas and control responsibilities are clearly defined in local documents and agreements at each airport. Any aircraft, vehicle, or person walking or working in these areas is required to have clearance from Ground Control. This is normally done via VHF/UHF radio, but there may be special cases where other processes are used. Most aircraft and airside vehicles have radios. Aircraft or vehicles without radios must respond to ATC instructions via aviation light signals or else be led by vehicles with radios. People working on the airport surface normally have a communications link through which they can communicate with Ground Control, commonly either by handheld radio or even cell phone.

Ground Control is vital to the smooth operation of the airport, because this position impacts the sequencing of departure aircraft, affecting the safety and efficiency of the airport's operation.

  1. SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE

SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE is put into place where activities must be confined due to their nature. In special use airspace, limitations may be placed on those aircraft who are not participating in the special activities. Special use airspace includes:

  1. Prohibited Areas

  2. Restricted Areas

  3. Warning Areas

  4. Alert Areas

  5. Military Operation Areas

  6. Controlled Firing Areas

  7. The Washington DC Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ) and Flight Restricted Zone (FRZ)

  1. PROHIBITED AREAS

These are designated for national security, or national welfare. For example, The White House has one. You cannot fly in them.



PROHIBITED AREAS are established for security or other reasons that have to do with national welfare. Aircraft may not enter a Prohibited Area unless prior permission has been obtained from the controlling agency.



  1. RESTRICTED AREAS

A RESTRICTED AREA may be quite large and is shown on the sectional with a wide blue line of hash marks and a sharp outer edge. The image at right shows several Restricted Areas of various shapes all pieced together. Unseen hazards such as artillery practice, missile firing and other activities may take place. Travel in a Restricted Area may be possible when it is not activated, but permission should be obtained by the controlling agency. Your sectional has a table that gives the floor and ceiling of Restricted Areas as well as the times of use and the controlling agency.

  1. WARNING AREAS

This is a hazardous area that lies over international waters, beyond the three mile coastal limit. Long, over water flights by ultralights into these areas are unlikely.

A WARNING AREA consists of airspace which may contain hazards to aircraft that are not participating in activities that are very similar to those within a restricted airspace. The purpose of this airspace is just as its name implies, to warm the pilot of such activities. You do not need special permission to enter a Warning Area. A Warning Area may be located over domestic or international waters or both and clearly marked on the VFR sectional chart.

  1. ALERT AREAS

Ordered the same as a Restricted and Prohibited area, the identifier is not with an R or P but with an A. We are allowed into Alert Area without prior permission. An Alert Area may involve high general aviation traffic, unusual air operations or frequent student training. The area will be marked with a blue border with a word or two of explanation.


ALERT AIRSPACE is an airspace that is designated to advise the pilot training or unusual aerial activity take place in that area. You do not need any special permission to fly within an Alert Area, just be more alert to hazards and traffic when passing through one.



  1. MILITARY OPERATION AREAS (MOAs)

MILITARY OPERATION AREA (MOA) are airspace that is created to separate military training activities with IFR traffic. You do not need any special permission to fly through an MOA; however, if you do choose to fly through MOA, be on look out training flights that may includes acrobatic flight and other abrupt maneuvers. MOAs are depicted on VFR Sectional charts but a magenta ticked line with the letters MOA and then the name of the airspace.



These large areas of the country are shown on your sectional as enclosed by a line of magenta hash marks with a sharp outer edge. Military operations such as training exercises come and go. Permission to fly in an MOA is not required, but a pilot may determine the hours of any current activity by calling the nearest Flight Service Station (FSS).



  1. CONTROL FIRING AREAS

CONTROL FIRING AREAS contain activities, which, if not conducted in a controlled environment, could be hazardous to non-participating aircraft. The difference between a Controlled Firing Area and other Special Use Airspace is that all operations must be suspended the moment that a spotter aircraft, ground radar or any other surveillance system recognizes a non-participating aircraft enter the area.



  1. THE WASHINGTON D.C. AIRFOCE DEFENSE IDENTIFICATION ZONE (ADIZ) AND FLIGHT RESTRICTED ZONE (FRZ)

The new Washington ADIZ (red line) compared to the old ADIZ (green line).

An AIR DEFENSE IDENTIFICATION ZONE (ADIZ) has existed since February 10, 2003 around the Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area to restrict air traffic near Washington, D.C.

The ADIZ was established after the September 11 attacks as a temporary measure to prevent further attacks. It was later made permanent.

Despite efforts by the Federal Aviation Administration to inform pilots of the ADIZ, there are still many unauthorized incursions by unsuspecting pilots. A pilot who violates the boundaries may be intercepted by military aircraft and escorted to the nearest airport, followed by suspension or revocation of the pilot's certified.

FLIGHT RESTRICTED ZONE

Within the ADIZ is an even more sensitive zone designated the Washington, D.C. Metropolitan Area Flight Restricted Zone (DC FRZ). The DC FRZ extends approximately 13-15 nautical miles (15-17 statute miles) around the VOR/DME located at the Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport. Flight within the FRZ is restricted to governmental, certain scheduled commercial and a limited set of waivered flights. Three general aviation airports (known as the "Maryland 3" or the "DC 3") are located inside the DC FRZ. The "Maryland 3" is College Park Airport (CGS), Washington Executive/Hyde Field (W32), and Potomac Airport (VKX).















Washington DC ADIZ gates, sectors and frequencies.